The following reading is an excerpt from the Introduction of Shinners & Mahler's Illustrated Flora of North Central Texas

by George Diggs, Barney Lipscomb, & Robert O'Kennon

copyright 1999 BRIT and Austin College

Presettlement and Early Settlement Conditions on the Blackland Prairie

Conditions on the presettlement Blackland Prairies were strikingly different from those found today. Probably the most striking difference was the presence of vast expanses of tall grass prairie. In the words of Parker (1856), traveling with the 1854 Marcy expedition, "After leaving Preston [northern Grayson County], we entered upon the vast plains. . . ." Dr. John Brooke, who emigrated from England in 1848, stated on arriving at the edge of the Blackland Prairie, "It was the finest sight I ever saw; immense meadows 2 or 3 feet deep of fine grass & flowers. Such beautiful colours I never saw. . . ." (Brooke 1848). In describing the area where he settled near Dorchester in south central Grayson County, Brooke (1849) said,

“I can sit on the porch before my door and can see miles of the most beautiful Prairie interwoven with groves of timber, surpassing, in my idea, the beauties of the sea. Think of seeing a tract of land on a slight incline covered with flowers and rich meadow grass for 12 to 20 miles. . . . "

Hill (1901), speaking of the Blacklands in general, said,

“The surfaces of the prairies are ordinarily clad with thick mantles of grass, liberally sprinkled with many-colored flowers, broken here and there by low growths of mesquite trees, or in exceptional places by 'mottes' or clumps of live oaks on uplands, pecan, bois d'arc, walnut and oaks in the stream bottoms; juniper and sumac where stony slopes exist, and post oak and black-jack in the sandy belts.”

Smythe (1852) described the eastern edge of the Blackland Prairie as having " . . .a view of almost boundless Prairie stretching to the north, as far as the eye could reach. . . ." He further referred to it as

“. . .a boundless plain scarcely broken by a single slope or valley, and nearly destitute of trees; (the mesquite appearing but seldom.) Several times during the forenoon not a single shrub or tree could be seen in any direction. . . . The grazing has reached its climax, it would be impossible for natural pasturage to excell [excel] this.”

Kendall (1845) described the southern part of the Blackland Prairie as "beautiful rolling prairies, the land rich, and susceptible of cultivation." Roemer's (1849) descriptions of the same region included "open prairie," "extensive prairies" with mesquite trees and scattered oak groves, "undulating prairie extending. . . an immeasurable distance," and "gently rolling, almost treeless plain." Indeed, on the Blackland Prairie, trees were often rare except as riverine forests along streams or as occasional scattered groves or mottes "such as the one near Kentuckytown that gave Pilot Grove [in southeastern Grayson County] its name, the trees being a major landmark in a featureless terrain." (McLeRoy 1993). The riverine forests along Big Mineral Creek [Grayson County] were described by Parker (1856) as "a rich bottom, thickly grown up with large cotton wood, honey locust, overcup [bur oak], and other heavy timber, besides plenty of the bois d'arc." Roemer (1849) described a trading post he visited in Falls County as "on a hill covered with oak trees, two miles distant from the Brazos, above the broad forested bottom of Tohawacony Creek." He further described the wooded bottomland as having "high, dense trees."

Fire was probably an important factor in maintenance of the original prairie vegetation and had a major impact on community structure (Anderson 1990; Collins & Gibson 1990; Strickland & Fox 1993). Tall grass prairie fires, intensely hot, would have been stopped only by the lack of dry fuel or a change in topography. Even streambank vegetation was susceptible during dry years. The end result was that trees were rare even along some stream banks, and prairie margins probably extended somewhat beyond the limits of the soil types usually associated with prairie (Hayward & Yelderman 1991). Roemer (1849) wrote of a prairie fire as follows:

“. . .we, ourselves, were entertained before going to sleep by the spectacle of a prairie fire. Like a sparkling diamond necklace, the strip of flame, a mile long, raced along over hill and dale, now moving slowly, now faster, now flickering brightly, now growing dim. We could the more enjoy this spectacle undisturbed, since the direction of the wind kept it from approaching us. My companion was of the opinion that Indians had without doubt started the fire, since they do this often to drive the game in a certain direction, and also to expedite the growth of the grass by burning off the dry grass.”

While lightning was an important source of naturally started fires, Native Americans were long present in the region and their use of fire is considered by some to be equally important in having maintained North American grasslands (Bragg 1995).

In summary, the original Blackland Prairie seems to have been predominantly tall grass prairie with trees along watercourses, sometimes scattered on the prairie or concentrated in certain areas (e.g., Pilot Grove) possibly as the result of locally favorable soil conditions or topography.

It is interesting to note that early (back to the 1830s) surveyor records of mesquite as the most common tree in presettlement upland prairies in Navarro County suggest ". . .the legendary spread of mesquite into North Texas by longhorn cattle may be an errant concept" (Jurney 1987). Roemer's (1849) mention of "extensive prairies covered with mesquite trees" also points to mesquite as a natural component of the vegetation. However, mesquite has increased in many areas and the observations mentioned above are not so early as to preclude mesquite having already being spread to some extent by land use changes.

While some question the degree to which mesquite was spread by longhorns, animals have had profound impacts on the vegetation since long before settlement. These range from the obvious effects of the bison or beaver to the more subtle but essential roles of pollination and seed dispersal. Present animal life is much different and some species reduced compared with that of presettlement days. In addition to relatively large present-day species such as the white-tailed deer, coyote, fox, and bobcat, a number of other large or interesting species occurred. According to Brooke (1848) writing of Grayson County, black bears were quite common ("I. . .have never tasted any meat I like better.") as were deer; panthers [mountain lions] and wolves were also present. In Brooke's (1848) words, "I have been out a-shooting Deer and Turkeys alone, and when going up the branches of the Rivers I often come across either bear or wolf. . . ." Strecker (1926a) (based on early fur-trader records) indicated that next to the skins of deer, "those of the black bear were of the most value to the Indians of McLennan County." Strecker (1926a) also reported that gray wolves occurred as far east as McLennan County. He indicated that they

“. . . may never have been very common permanent residents of McLennan County, but in late fall and winter, small packs followed the great herds of buffalo and deer from northwestern Texas and remained here for several months. It was probably only a minority that remained throughout the year. Old settlers refer to packs of from five to eight wolves which they considered small family groups.”

Another predator, the ocelot, is thought to have ranged as far north as the Red River (Hall & Kelson 1959). Strecker (1924), for example, reported that ocelot occurred in the bottoms of the Brazos River near Waco in McLennan County. Even jaguar are believed to have ranged north to the Red River; the last jaguar record from North Central Texas was a large male killed in Mills County (Lampasas Cut Plain) in 1903 (Bailey 1905). Mountain lions probably occurred throughout North Central Texas (Schmidly 1983), with Strecker (1926a) indicating they were common in McLennan County in the middle of the 1800s. However, they were rare by the beginning of the 20th century (Bailey 1905) and since that time have been eliminated over most of the region (Schmidly 1983). The collared peccary or javelina, a small wild pig, was also originally present in the southern portion of the area, north to at least the Brazos River valley in McLennan County near Waco (Strecker 1926a; Schmidly 1983; Davis & Schmidly 1994). Other noteworthy large mammals that previously occurred in appropriate habitats of the Blackland Prairie as well as throughout the rest of North Central Texas include river otter, ringtail, and badger (Schmidly 1983; Davis & Schmidly 1994).

The occurrence of bison was documented by Judge John Simpson of Bonham (Fannin County). Simpson, describing a bison hunt in 1833, reported that hunters found "an immense herd" "on the prairie around Whitewright [Grayson County]" (McLeRoy 1993). Parker (1856), in his 1854 journal, states, "But eight years since, herds roamed around the City of Austin, and were frequently seen in the streets; now there arebut few to be found south of Red River." Roemer (1849) described bison on the southern Blackland Prairie as follows:

“When on the following morning at daybreak we entered the prairie on which mesquite trees grew scatteringly, the first object that met our view was a buffalo herd, quietly grazing near us. . . . The whole prairie was covered with countless buffalo trails, crossing in all directions, reminding one of a European grazing ground.”

On a different day, Roemer (1849) indicated,

“They covered the grassy prairie separated into small groups and far distant on the horizon they were visible as black specks. The number of those clearly seen must have been not less than a thousand.”

Pronghorn antelope were also native, occurring at least as far east as Fannin County (Hall & Kelson 1959). Smythe (1852) described a small herd on the eastern edge of the Blacklands, Roemer (1849) mentioned sighting pronghorn antelopes near where the Blackland Prairie and Lampasas Cut Plain come together, and Major G.B. Erath, a pioneer of Waco, indicated that antelope were common in what is now McLennan County in the early to middle 1800s (Schmidly 1983). Erath also reported that small herds penetrated as far east as Milam County on the eastern edge of the Blackland Prairie (Strecker 1926a).

While not native, wild horses, descended from those escaped from the Spanish, were by the early 1800s extremely common in Texas and were probably having a significant impact on the vegetation. Ikin (1841), speaking of Texas as a whole, indicated,

“The wild horse which now roams every prairie, sometimes alone, sometimes in herds of more than a thousand, is not native, but the progeny of those which escaped from the early conquerors of Mexico. He is usually a small bony animal about fourteen hands high, with remarkably clean legs, and other signs indicative of good blood. When congregated in bodies of a thousand, these horses form the most imposing spectacle which the prairies present.”

Strecker (1926a) also reported the wild horse as abundant throughout the Brazos Valley of McLennan County at the time of arrival of the first American settlers. He further indicated that early settlers sometimes shot the wild horses to prevent interference with their domesticated stock.

The bird, reptile, and fish faunas were also conspicuously different in significant ways from those today. Brooke (1848), writing about early Grayson County, mentioned both turkeys and prairie chickens, and Smythe (1852) spoke of hunting "Prairie Hens" in what is now Limestone County on the eastern edge of the Blackland Prairie. According to Pulich (1988), both greater and lesser prairie chickens were common in North Central Texas until the 1880s; these two species were locally extinct by the early 1900s. Oberholser (1974) mentioned a specimen record for the greater prairie chicken from Dallas County with a number of other North Central Texas records west of the Blackland Prairie in Clay, Cooke, Denton, and Navarro counties. There is a questionable record for the lesser prairie chicken from Dallas and also records for this species from Cooke and Young counties to the west of the Blacklands (Oberholser 1974). The extinct passenger pigeon is also well documented for the Blackland Prairie. These birds, known as "wild pigeons" by early settlers, were recorded from Collin, Fannin, and Henderson counties, with a number of records even farther west in the Grand Prairie, Lampasas Cut Plain, and West Cross Timbers (Oberholser 1974; Pulich 1988). This once very numerous species rapidly became extinct in North Central Texas, with 1896 being the last record in the area (Oberholser 1974; Pulich 1988). The ivory-billed, one of the world's largest woodpecker species, was also present in bottomland forests in the Blacklands. Oberholser (1974) lists records for Cooke, Dallas, Fannin, and Kaufman counties with sightings as late as the early 1900s (Pulich 1988). Another extinct species, the Carolina parakeet, was known from eastern Texas (Greenway 1958) and was probably also present in the riverine forests of the Blackland Prairie (Goodwin 1983), especially along the Red and Trinity rivers. Even more surprising, alligators were abundant in places, with Kendall (1845) describing them along the San Gabriel in the southern Blackland Prairie as "too plentiful for any useful purposes." This large reptile occurred in appropriate habitats throughout most of the Blackland Prairie, west to Grayson, Dallas, McLennan, and Williamson counties (Brown 1950; Hibbard 1960; Dixon 1987), and are still known to occur in Dallas County. Kendall (1845) further indicated concerning the San Gabriel that "The stream abounds with trout, perch, and catfish, as do nearly all the watercourses in this section of Texas."

During the Pleistocene, an even more extensive megafauna occurred in the area (Smeins 1988), as shown by the excavation of a mammoth from near Flowing Wells (Grayson County) by Dr. Daniel Schores and a student team from Austin College (D. Schores, pers. comm.). Further, fossils of at least three elephant species, including mammoth and mastadon, are known from the Dallas area (Shuler 1934). An even more impressive site containing a large (20+) mammoth herd was found near Waco in a Brazos River terrace dated around 28,000 years BP (Fox et al. 1992; C. Smith, pers. comm.). Several woody plants found in the Blackland Prairie region seem to have adaptations that are difficult to explain based on interactions with the present fauna. Bois d'arc (Maclura pomifera), honey-locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), and mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) all have fruits that are adapted for dispersal by large animals (megafauna) and seem to fit Janzen and Martin's (1982) hypothesis that large, now extinct animals were involved in the evolution of certain "anachronistic" plant characteristics we see today. Another such possible characteristic is the protective armature displayed by honey-locust. The long, stout, branched thorns, up to a foot or more long, would seem perfectly reasonable in Africa where there are abundant large herbivores, but rather out of place in northern Texas where currently no large native browsers exist.

In general, the animals of the Blacklands have faunal affinities with the eastern woodlands, the Great Plains, and the southwestern United States (Schmidly et al. 1993). A recent, now very abundant, southern addition to the fauna is the nine-banded armadillo. This species is originally native to South America, and as recently as the 1870s to 1880 was found only at the southern tip of Texas (Strecker 1926b; Phelan 1976). Since that time it has spread extensively and is now found hundreds of miles north of Texas (Hall & Kelson 1959). Armadillos were at least sporadic as far north as the Red River by the early 1930s, but did not become common there until the 1950s (H. McCarley, pers. comm.).

The earliest use of the Blackland Prairie by settlers was as grazing areas for herds of cattle or horses. According to Hayward and Yelderman (1991) ". . . the Blackland Prairie supported some of the earliest of large-scale ranching efforts in Texas, complete with pre-Civil War cattle drives to St. Louis and Chicago." Brooke (1848 ) stated that, ". . . the cattle and horses feed on the prairies all winter; no need of laying up winter food." Parker (1856) wrote of a herd of 1,200 wild cattle being driven north across the Red River at Preston (Grayson County).

While limited "sod plowing" occurred quite early (Smythe 1852), it wasn't until the 1870s and 1880s, with the coming of the railroads and the development of special plows and favorable economic conditions, that extensive "breaking of the prairie" and exploitation of its agricultural potential finally occurred (Hayward & Yelderman 1991). Once farming on the Blacklands was possible, widespread cultivation of the rich soils, perhaps as rich as any in the nation (Hayward & Yelderman 1991), was inevitable and farming quickly replaced ranching. Cotton soon became an important crop and thus began the era referred to as the Cotton Kingdom. According to Sharpless and Yelderman (1993), for seventy years more cotton was grown on the Blackland Prairie than any other region of the world. Hill (1901) said, "In fact these calcareous soils . . . of the Black Prairies are the most fertile of the whole trans-Mississippi region." Others (e.g., Sharpless and Yelderman 1993) have said the soil is arguably the most fertile west of the Mississippi River. Within a very short time, most of the accessible and desirable land was put into cultivation, and according to Burleson (1993), by 1915 the human population on the Blacklands was greater than on any other United States area of comparable size west of the Mississippi. The result was the virtually complete destruction of native Blackland Prairie communities. With the exception of small or inaccessible areas and a relatively few hay meadows valued for their native grasses, almost nothing remains of the tall grass prairies that were once so abundant. Estimates of the destruction of this ecosystem range from 98% (Hatch et al. 1990) or 99% (Riskind & Collins 1975) to more than 99.9 % (Burleson 1993).